In this section we briefly describe the functions of each layer in the OSI model. Physical Layer The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical medium. It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission media. It also defines the procedures and functions that
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Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. Almost three-fourths of countries in the world are represented in the ISO. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late
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The scope of HRM is indeed vast. All major activities in the working life of a worker from the time of his or her entry into an organization until he or she leaves the organizations comes under the purview of HRM. The major HRM activities include HR planning, job analysis, job design, employee hiring, employee
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[sc_fs_faq html=”true” headline=”h2″ img=”” question=”What is Human Resource Management?” img_alt=”” css_class=””] HRM is the study of activities regarding people working in an organization. It is a managerial function that tries to match an organization’s needs to the skills and abilities of its employees. [/sc_fs_faq] Definitions of Human resources management HRM Human resources management (HRM) is
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Cerf and Kahn’s landmark 1973 paper outlined the protocols to achieve end-to-end delivery of data. This was a new version of NCP. This paper on transmission control protocol (TCP) included concepts such as encapsulation, the datagram, and the functions of a gateway. A radical idea was the transfer of responsibility for error correction from the
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Terminology in Computer Networking AIMD – Additive Increase, Multiplicative Decrease. A rate adaption algorithm used notably by TCP where a host additively increases its transmission rate when the network is not congested and multiplicatively decreases when congested is detected. anycast – a transmission mode where an information is sent from one source to one receiver
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Many point-to-point datalink layers have been developed, starting in the 1960s. In this section, we focus on the protocol that are often used to transport IP packets between hosts or routers that are directly connected by a point-to-point link. This link can be a dedicated physical cable, a leased line through the telephone network or
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The Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) Medium Access Control algorithm was designed for the popular WiFi wireless network technology. CSMA/CA also senses the transmission channel before transmitting a frame. Furthermore, CSMA/CA tries to avoid collisions by carefully tuning the timers used by CSMA/CA devices. CSMA/CA uses acknowledgements like CSMA. Each frame contains
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Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) improves channel utilization compared to ALOHA. However, the performance can still be improved, especially in wired networks. Consider the situation of two terminals that are connected to the same cable. This cable could, for example, be a coaxial cable as in the early days of Ethernet [Metcalfe1976]. It could also
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In the 1960s, computers were mainly mainframes with a few dozen terminals attached to them. These terminals were usually in the same building as the mainframe and were directly connected to it. In some cases, the terminals were installed in remote locations and connected through a modem attached to a dial-up line. The university of
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